EDUCATION MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION (EA300)

EA 300

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL

ADMINISTRATION

Remodelled by Auron Athanas

Credits to: Dr. Simon Peter

MODULE 1: Introduction to Educational Management Concepts

Basic concepts i) Management

ii) Educational management

iii) Administration

iv) Educational administration

v) Organization

vi) Educational organizations

Management

The term management can be defined in various ways

a) As an activity, implies directing and instructing employees to do

an activity in order to achieve the predetermined organizational goal

or objective.

b) As a process, it is the process of planning, organizing,

coordinating, controlling and so on. Henry Fayol defined

management as to forecast and plan, organize, command, coordinate

and control.

Brech defined management as a social process which constitutes

planning, controlling, coordinating and motivating.

c) As a group is a group of people within the organization primarily

concerned with directing activities of the organization in order to

achieve organizational goal.

d) As a discipline, is a science and art which deals with knowledge,

techniques and principles which managers use in management.

Okumbe (1998) management is the process of designing, developing

and effecting organizational objectives and resources so as to achieve

the predetermined organizational goals. The manager determine the

goals of the organization, designs and develop the objectives and then

determine both human and material resources required for attainment

of these goals.

Educational Management

Educational management refers to the application of

management theory and practice to educational institutions. Or it is

the process of designing, developing and effecting educational

objectives and resources for the achievements of organizational goals.

Administration

Is the process of acquiring and allocating resources for the

achievement of the organizational goals. It is a delegated aspect of

management. It is concerned with interacting and controlling human

energy.

Management and administration are sometimes used interchangeably.

For example, Henry Fayol has used the term administration to

mean management because they all refers to controlling, coordinating

and supervising the activities of the organizations

Educational Administration refers to the process of acquiring

resources for the achievement of educational goals.

The differences between management and administration

Management is widely used in private sector where as administration

is used in public sector where work is done as a service to the society

with no profit motives.

Administration is restricted to professional areas such as teaching,

law, medicine and personnel are well trained in their areas of

specialization while Management is restricted to the areas which do

not require highly trained manpower and where on – the- job training

a major role play in the staff development

Organization

Chester Barnard defined organization as a system of

consciously/intentionally coordinated activities of two or more

persons. Etzion defined organization as a planned units deliberately

structures for the purpose of attaining specific goals. From these

definitions organization is defined as a group of people with common

interests who have come together for the purpose of achieving

specific goals. E.g. bank, church school, university, mosque

The Educational Organizations

Is a group of people in a given place whose efforts are deliberately

coordinated for the purpose of imparting knowledge, skills and

attitudes to students or pupils in order to achieve predetermined

educational goals. For example, schools, universities, colleges of

education.

The important factors/ components of organization

i) People

ii) Objectives/ goals

iii) Structures (i.e. the way organization is made)

The success or failure of the organization will depend on the

interrelationship between people, objectives/goals and structures

together with sufficient use of available resources.

General Functions of the Educational Manager

i) Planning i.e. setting goals and deciding how to achieve them

For example the goal the university is to educate students. The role of

the manager is to decide the best way to achieve the goal including --

determining the kind of programmes to be offered,

_type of students to be recruited, kind of faculties to be hired,

_The kind of buildings and equipments needed.

_ amount of money to be spent

_ Setting departmental objectives i.e. each department must have

objectives which together form school objectives.

_ Setting daily routine of the school. These daily routine may

include school general time table, school menu as well as school

calendar

ii) Organizing i.e. arranging tasks, people and other material

resources so as to accomplish the task/work

For example determined the tasks to be done by who determine

reporting hierarchy, departments, nature of instructors- full time or

part time lectures, who should teach what.

_Employing teachers and non teaching staff

_Appointing the heads of departments and other positions such as

academic, health, store keeping, sports and games.

_-Specifying duties and responsibilities of the appointed officials

_Purchasing supplies of food and teaching/ learning materials.

_Conducting staff meeting, school assembly, school committee

meeting.

iii) Leading i.e. motivating, directing and influencing employees to

work hard to achieve the organization’s goals.

_-to motivate faculty, staff, students, alumni/graduates, donors,

and the surrounding community to help the college

realize/understand its goals.

_-to resolve conflicts

iv) Controlling i.e. monitoring performance, compare it with goals

and take corrective measures as needed.

_Making sure that teaching and learning is conducted effectively.

That is teachers attend classes regularly, prepare scheme of work

and lesson plan

_Taking disciplinary actions e.g. verbal warning, suspension and

dismissal of employees and students who misbehave.

_Making frequent inspection of teaching and learning process

_Making frequent testing and checking students healthy e.g.

pregnancy

_Introducing remedial classes so as to ensure that the final

performance is good.

_Establishing cut of points/passes marks.

_Controlling the selection of personnel by setting qualification for

selecting someone into the job.

Drucker maintained that managers are the basics and scarcest

resource in an enterprise. Not every person in the organization can be

a manager, not everybody in the school can be a principal or head

master/mistress. The school administrators develop and establish

administrative processes, procedures and techniques that bring

together human and material resources so as to achieve educational

objectives in their organizations.

Therefore administration is an executive activity different from

policy making since it is concerned with implementation of the policy.

The most visible and critical functions of administration in

educational organization are;

i) Personnel administration

ii) Instructional programme administration

iii) Support service administration

Personnel Administration

Personnel administration refers to the management of human

resource in the organization. It involves administrative processes like

manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction,

staff development, appraisal of personnel, compensation and

collective bargaining.

Instructional Programmed Administration

The core function of the educational administrators is to ensure that

the programme of instruction is delivered. To give support to the

personnel (teachers) so as to enrich the curriculum. It refers to issues

of timetable, examinations, school calendar, scheme of work, lesson

plan.

The Support Service Administration

It is not the core administrative service, but it supports the

administration. It includes transport, food and catering services,

stores and storage functions, financial aspects, cleanliness, power

supply, water supply and tenders.

PERSPECTIVES THAT HAVE INFLUENCED MANAGEMENT OF

EDUCATION AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

The evolution of Management Thought

The industrial revolution marked the beginning of professionalization

of management. The invention of machines and the use of modern

means of transport brought workers together as employees in the

factories. The coordination of men and materials emerged as a

problem. It is that context that the idea of management was evolved

and pioneered by early writers such as

i) Adam Smith provided idea of management techniques for

coordinating men, money and materials in large scale organization

ii) Charles Babbage, an English Mathematician proposed that

certain principles of organization must exist that will apply to every

type of human enterprises that involves coordination of people and

resource so as to achieve the shared goals.

iii) Other influential people demanded more scientific management

methods. For example John Wharton financed the establishment

of the first school to train managers such that by 1911 management

was becoming a recognized area of academic study. It was out of this

idea that scientific management movement emerged.

Why study theoretical perspectives

i) To understand the present. When you view current management

practice, an understanding of history will help you understand why

they are still in favor whether for the right reasons or the wrong one.

ii) Guide to action. Knowing management perspectives help you

develop a set of principle, a blue print that will guide your actions.

iii) Source of new ideas. Being aware of various perspectives can

provide new ideas when you encounter new situations.

iv) Clues to meaning of your managers decision. It can help you

understand the focus of your organization, where the top managers are

coming starting.

v) Clues to meaning of outside events. It may allow you to

understand events outside organization that could affect it or you.

Classical school of thought

i) Scientific Management

Scientific management connotes the process of approaching

various aspects of the organization scientifically by using scientific

tools such as research, measurements and analysis. It arose due to the

need to increase productivity of workers. Scientific management

emphasized the scientific study of work methods to improve

productivity of individual worker. Frederick Winslow Taylor

(the father of scientific management) as a factory labour, supervisor

and chief engineer spent most of his time doing experiments on the

ways of increasing efficiency on the shop floor. From his experiments

he noticed that:

i) Management had no clear concept about worker-management

responsibility.

ii) Effective work standards were not applied

iii) No incentives were used to improve labour productivity

iv) Workers performed dual functions i.e. planning and performance

of their duty. This situation led to too much waste and inefficiency.

v) Systematic soldering or loafing existed on every hand i.e. people

worked at less than full capacity.

vi) Management decisions were based on past experience or rule of

thumb

vii) Workers were assigned work for which they had little or no

ability

viii) Management disregarded the truth that excellence in performance

and operation would mean a reward to both management and workers.

Assumptions of Scientific Management

i) Workers are motivated by economic incentives and limited by

physiology therefore they need constant supervision and direction to

make them work.

ii) Individuals could be programmed to be efficient like a machine.

In his book “Principles of Scientific Management of 1911, Taylor

developed principles of management which he believed that if used

properly managers would eliminate soldiering and hence increase

productivity.

Principles of Management

i) Evaluate a task by scientifically studying each part of the task

ii) Carefully select workers with the right abilities for the task

iii) Train workers and give them incentives to do the task with the

proper methods.

iv) Cooperation between workers and management to ensure that

work is done according to devised procedures

v) Equal division of work between management and workers each

group taking the work for which it is best suited for.

vi) Standardized conditions. Workers should be given standardized

conditions and appliances to accomplish the task.

vii) High pay for successful completion of tasks

vii) Loss in case of failure. Failure should be personally cost to

individual worker.

viii) Expertise in large organization. As organization become complex

tasks should be made so difficulty that it is accomplished by first rate

man

ix) Each person in the establishment should have a clearly defined

daily task which can be measured at the end of the day

Weaknesses of Scientific Management

i) He concentrated on repetitive muscular tasks

ii) Concentrated on the problem of workers and failed to deal with the

management.

iii) Based much on physiology ignoring the role of psychological and

sociological factors in making workers do their work better.

iv) The view that worker is an economic being who work for

economic gain is misleading because a worker is a social being with

social needs and other aspects like interests, aspiration, and goal

apart from organizational goal

v) Defining work and responsibility in a clear cut manner can result

into mindedness and unquestioned attitudes among employees

because it lets them know what is not expected of them.

Vi) Standardization and specialization reduces initiatives on the

part of workers (ability to imitate from others- the power or

opportunity to act before others do).

vii) One best way of managing organization. Psychologists argue

that workers differ from one another and there cannot be one best way

for all.

viii) Scientific management reduces worker to a machine. However in

today’s world there is a limit in production no matter how productive

you are.

ix) The approach creates organization difficult in adapting the new

circumstances i.e. changes. This is due to formalization that is often

unable to deal effectively with changes.

The influences of scientific Management Theory in the

management of education and school administration

Some of the principles advanced by Taylor and other contributors to

scientific management are practiced in educational organizations. For

example:

i) Specialization, teachers are assigned work according to their

areas of specialization

ii) Training; teaching profession requires both preliminary and

ongoing training in order to update teaching skills and knowledge.

iii) Standardized conditions and appliances. School

inspection is used as a major way of maintaining/controlling

education quality. Teachers are supplied with syllabuses, books and

other materials to facilitate their work.

iv) Economic motivation. In education institutions salary

increment and promotion are used as incentives to make employees

work hard.

v) Division of labour. In educational organizations departments

are created so as to ensure that each member has a role to play which

contribute to the attainment of organization goal

vi) The best way of performing a task. Educationists are

continually looking for the best way of teaching hence improving

performance.

vii) Discipline. In educational organizations teachers code of

conduct, terms of service and school rule are stipulated so as to

enhance teachers discipline. Deviant behavior are dealt with

accordingly

viii) Recruitment based on the ability and expertise. The

government hires teaching and non teaching staff on the basis of their

specialization and competence.

Administrative Theory

Another contributed to scientific management was Henri Fayol

(1841- 1925), a French mining engineer who occupied a topmanagement

position in the industry. He studied management

behavior and he was the first to identify the functions of management

/ administration i.e. planning, organizing, commanding,

coordinating and controlling. Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick

modified Fayol’s functions and came up with seven functions;

planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and

budgeting ( POSDCORB). Fayol also was the first to systematize

management. In his book General and Industrial Management /

Administration Industrielle et Generale of 1916 he provided the 14

principle guidelines to effective and efficient administration of the

organization.

Generally Fayol addresses two important questions

a) What are the basic functions of management?

b) What are the basic principles which guide the design, the creation

and the maintenance of the organization structure?

Fayol’s 14 Principles of Administration or the

Universal Principles of Administration

1. Division of work or specialization. Every employee should

be assigned only one type of work for which he/she is competent.

2. Authority and responsibility. I.e. ability to give lawful order

and to exact obedience. Authority is based on ones position in the

organization as well as personality of individual e.g intelligence,

knowledge, experience etc.

3. Discipline. This implies obedience and respect between

management and employees based on clear and fair agreement e.g.

observance of established rules and regulation.

4. Unity of command (one man one superior). Employees should

receive order from one superior at a time.

5. Unity of direction. Organization activities should have one

central authority and one plan of action.

6. Subordination of individual interests to general interests.

The interests or goal of the organization must prevail upon the

individual goal or interests.

7. Remuneration of personnel. Salaries as the price of services

rendered by employees should be satisfactory to both employees and

employer.

8. Span of control. Each superior at any level of the organization

should have limited number of subordinate to control.

9. Scalar chain. Refers to chain of superiors ranging from the

highest rank to the bottom or it is the unbroken chain of command

from the top to the bottom of the organizational structure.

10. Order. Proper arrangement of material resources and personnel

in the organization while each aspect placed in its right position for

proper functioning of the organization.

11. Equity. Equity and equality of treatment of employees.

Discrimination should not prevail when dealing with employees.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Enhancement of job

security improves performance of employee. Employee requires some

time to get used to the new so as to do it well.

13. Initiatives. Allowing subordinates to provide suggestions for

improvement of the implementation of the organizational plan/plans.

14. Esprit de corps. Team work is important in the organization.

Administrator should harmonize individual interests so as to achieve

organizational goals.

QN

What is the Utility of the Administrative Theory?

What are its strengths and weaknesses?

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY

The concept of bureaucracy has been defined in various ways.

i) According to Weber bureaucracy is a type of administrative

structure developed through rational authority. It is a form of

organization which is characterized by;

a) Functional specialization

b) Clear line of hierarchical of authority

c) Expert training of managers and administrators.

d) Decision making based on rules and regulation

e) Appointment and promotion based on merit rather than favoritism

Bureaucracy is a formal system of organization and administration

designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.

ii) It is an organization of non elected officials of a government or

organization who implements the rules, laws, and functions of their

institutions. It is characterized by red tape .i.e. excessive use of

administrative procedures. For example for one thing to be done it

has to pass through different heads of departments.

iii) It is an administrative structure with offices arranged in a

hierarchy with a higher hierarchy having authority to supervise lower

hierarchy and each office is run by definite rules and regulations

which are impersonal.

THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY

The concept of bureaucracy as we know it today is attributed to Max

Weber (1864 – 1920) a German sociologist also known as the father

of bureaucracy. He wrote this theory during industrial revolution

when Germany was striving to become a World power. For the

purpose of increasing productivity in the organization Weber

developed principles of bureaucracy to ensure efficiency and

effectiveness of the organization.

i) A well defined hierarchy of authority. Bureaucratic

organization is divided in levels such that the higher level controls the

lower level. This provides a clear chain of command which facilitates

control and order throughout the organization.

ii) Formal rules and standardized procedures and norms.

Rules and regulations govern the behavior of employees. They ensure

compliance/conformity, uniformity of actions and the continuity of

the organizational activities.

iii) A clear division of labour and specialization. Tasks,

duties and responsibilities are divided and each individual has a task

to perform based on his/her area of specialization.

iv) Impartiality (unbiased) or impersonal orientation.

Equality of treatment of all employees by ruling the organization on

the basis of rules, regulation and procedures and not on personal

feelings.

iv) Competence. Technical knowhow, knowledge, and expertise

form the basis of decision making, job assignment, and promotions.

v) Security of employment. Employment in the formal

organization is a permanent career. Therefore employees have to be

protected from arbitrary dismissal from job and denial of promotion.

vi) Separation of official and private property. Each

official neither owns part of the organization property nor use the

office for private gain.

Note: These principles are called ideal type because in practice it is

difficult to achieve them but each organization is expected to work

towards maximization of these.

NB

Authority is power to hold people accountable for their actions and

to make decision concerning the use of organizational resources. It

gives managers the right to direct and control behavior of

subordinates.

Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken

under different circumstances to achieve specific goal. It is a set of

written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task.

Norm’s unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how

people should act in a particular situation and are considered

important by most members of a group or organization.

HUMAN RELATION APPROACH

Human relation was defined by Ogunsula in 1973 as the

integration of people into a work situation in a way that motivates

them to work together productively, cooperatively and with

economic, psychological and social satisfaction. It was developed in

1930s as a reaction to scientific management. The theory focused on

factors that influence human behavior at the work place. It states

that increased productivity is attributed to specific attention the

worker receives. Human relations also emphasizes that productivity of

the worker is a product of psychological and socio-psychological

influences. Hence productivity, efficiency and effectiveness are

social and not mechanical issues. It emphasizes on group dynamic,

democratic supervision, employer interaction with employees,

involvement of workers in decision making and personnel

relations.

The most influential people were, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker

Follet, Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger. Other contributors were

Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor.

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

It focused on how managers should behave to motivate employees

and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed

to the achievement of organizational goals.

Pioneered by Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Packer Follet and

Elton Mayo

I. Hugo Munsterberg (a psychologist, also a father of industrial

psychology)

He suggested three ways of improving industrial production

a) Study the job and identify the right people to do the job

b) Identify psychological conditions under which employees do their

work best

c) Design strategies to make employees follow management interests.

2. Mary Parker Follet (An American social worker and social

philosopher). She emphasized on democratic ways of leading

employees. She was writing in response to scientific management

which ignored the human side of the organization. She emphasized

that organizations should be democratic with managers and workers

working cooperatively. That is workers should be involved in job

analysis and be allowed to participate in the work development

process

His contributions

a) Organization should be operated like communities. I.e.

management and workers should work together in harmony.

b) Integration in solving conflict management and workers should

talk over differences and find solutions to the problems that would

satisfy both parties.

c) Authority should go with knowledge that is work process should

be controlled by knowledgeable workers while managers act as

facilitator and not monitor or supervisor.

3. Elton Mayo and Roethlisberger are known for the research

at the Western Hawthorne Electric Plants. The aim of the research

was to determine factors influencing productivity in the organization.

Experiments at Western Electric Hawthorne Plant/ Hawthorne

Studies

a) Experiment one determined the relationship between lighting and

workers productivity. Or investigated into whether workplace lighting

level affected worker productivity.

The results of the findings indicated that productivity increases as the

lighting level decreased until employees were unable to see what they

were doing after which the performance naturally declined.

b) Later on other variables were altered. Five women were supervised

and were given privileges such as right to leave the work place

without permission, rest periods, free lunch, and variation in pay level

and work day.

The result was that production increased leading Mayo and colleagues

to hypothesize what came to be known as the Hawthorne

effects

The Hawthorne Effects

Employees worked harder if they received added attention, if they

thought that managers cared about their welfare, and that

supervisors paid special attention to them.

Other Contributors to Human relation Approach

Douglas McGregor and the theory X and theory Y held

McGregor revealed that managers hold two attitudes towards workers

i.e. negative/ pessimistic view which he called theory X and

positive/optimistic views which he called theory Y.

In theory X managers view workers as

i) Irresponsible/ dislike work and will avoid it if they can,

ii) Lack ambitions and wish to avoid responsibility.

iii) Want to be lead rather than to lead.

Because of his dislike for work must be closely controlled, directed

and supervised by means of “the carrot and stick” reward and

punishment to make them work.

Its implication to Management

Theory X manager

· Design work setting to maximize their control over workers and

minimize workers control of their work.

· They develop rules, standard procedures and a system of reward

and punishment to make people do their work.

· They give little or no autonomy to workers because they believe

that workers do not desire cooperation

· Managers’ role is to closely monitor, control and to supervise

workers to contribute to the production process.

These assumptions explain part of human behavior in the

organization. There are other behaviors that need to be explained.

Theory Y represents the outlook of Human relation proponents i.e. an

optimistic view of workers

i) An average human is capable of accepting responsibility

ii) Workers exercises self direction and self control

iii) Commitment to objective is a function of rewards associated with

achievements

iv) Workers are imaginative/inventive and creative and so they can

contribute towards achievement of the organizational goals.

The organization is seen as a social entity/unit with supportive

interaction which makes members feel that organizational objectives

are of personal importance to them.

Implication to Management

Theory Y manager

· Create a work setting that encourages commitment to the goal of

the organization

· Decentralize authority and give more control over job by workers

Abraham Maslow and the Hierarchy of Human Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow in 1943 was one of the first researchers to study

about motivation and developed his hierarchy of needs theory. He

contended that human being is a wanting animal. As soon as his

need is satisfied, another appears in its place and that these needs are

arranged in levels according to their importance in the hierarchy.

1. Physiological needs. Are the basic human physical needs like food,

shelter, clothing, comfort and protection, In the organization

employer can offer adequate ventilation, heat, water, base pay

2. Safety needs. Needs related to physical safety, protection against

threats, danger and deprivation. In the organization these needs

include safety working conditions, job security, health, and retirement

benefits.

3. Social needs. The needs to belong, to give and receive friendship,

acceptance and affection. In the organization these needs include

offering interaction with others, participate in workgroup, good

relations with supervisors.

4. Esteem needs. Status, self respect, reputation, recognition and self

confidence. The organization offer recognition, merit pay, and

employee participation in making decisions.

5. Self-actualization needs. Include needs for self fulfillment,

increasing competence, using abilities to the fullest. The organization

can offer training, creativity, promotions, employee control over jobs.

Importance of Maslow hierarchy of needs theory to

motivate employees.

It shows that workers have needs beyond that of paying salary. The

managers need to meet level 1 and 2 needs to make employees not to

preoccupy them. And then give chance to employees to fulfill their

higher level needs in a way that also advance the goal of the

organization.

Conclusion

The HRA rejects simplistic approaches to motivation at the lower

level of human needs. It contents that management should be

concerned with the whole person and should recognize the complex

aspects of human motivation and satisfaction.

ASSUMPTIONS OF HUMAN RELATION APPROACH

i.) Mechanistic approaches are inadequate in managing people in the

organization because human beings are motivated and de-motivated

by the environment

ii) Understanding human factor is very important in improving

productivity

iii) The average employee in any organization has complex of needs,

values and attitudes which affect job performance and ultimately

productivity.

iv) The threats of punishment are not the only way to achieve the

goal. People on their own achieve goals if they are committed

THE INFLUENCES OF HUMAN RELATION APPROACH TO

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

Human relation approach calls for democratization of educational

administration. The administrator should promote relationship of

employees by creating harmony and morale of the staff through.

Being accessible, take prompt action on request, feedback on

employee performance, willingness to listen to employees problems,

being cheerful, polite, and considerate and offering assistance to settle

problem.

In the school the school master must: ensure security of teachers

and students, improve work environment, ensure sense of

belonging, give fair treatment, make employee feel important

and be part of the policy formulation, maintain respect.

MODULE TWO

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES

A: The System Theory

What is a system?

The concept of system was first used by a biologist Ludwig Von

Bertalanffy who described biological system as an entity which has

relationship to their environment and consists of interacting and

interdependent subparts that contribute to the purpose of the whole.

Kaufman defined a system as the sum total of parts working

independently and working together to achieve the required

results/outcomes.

Granger defined a system as a whole that consists of parts and sub

parts which have dynamic (active) relationship among them and with

the whole. The idea of hierarchy of parts – whole relationship is

fundamental to the understanding of the system theory and

organization as system.

Generally a system is a set of interrelated parts that operate together to

achieve a common purpose.

System Theory

System theory view organization as a system which is formed by parts

with specific functions but depend each other. A change in one part

may result in a change in the other part. The system theory discusses

the organization in terms of:

i) Synergy (cooperation and interaction of parts).

ii) Communication flow among and within sub system and the larger

system

iii) Feedback

iv) The degrees of openness or closeness against external

environment

A system is made up of four parts

i) Inputs i.e. people, money, information, equipment and materials

required to produce an organization’s good or service Whatever goes

into the a system in input.

ii) The transformational processes. The organizations

capabilities in management and technology that are applied to convert

inputs into outputs.

iii) Output are the products, services loses employee satisfaction,

discontent and the like that are produced by the organization.

Whatever comes out the system is output.

iv) Feedback is information about the reaction of the environment to

the outputs which affects the inputs.

B: School Organization and External Environment

Schools are seen as systems, sub system,

A school is a system by itself since it is made up of a number of sub

systems such a classrooms/grade levels, subject departments,

students friendship/social groups and school committees.

A school organization is a subsystem of the District school system.

There is interaction between schools at the district level but the

interaction does not always lead to interdependence among schools.

Therefore the synergy between schools is low. This situation is

referred to as loosely coupled system. However within the school

and its sub systems such as classes, departments, school

committees, the interaction is very strong. The cooperation and

interaction of teachers, parents and the community is high which

enable the school to function well.

Systems are either closed or open

Nearly all organizations are at least open systems

· Closed system is the one which self contained and thus not

affected by changes occurring in its external environment. It

ignores the external influence that may affect the behavior of

workers hence productivity.

· Open system continually interacts with its environment. It is a

system which takes in resources from its external environment

and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are

sent back to the environment where they are bought by

customers.

Schools are described as open system since they depend on

environment for several things e.g. the flow of information, personnel

and other resources. A school as a system is divided into four parts

Inputs =students, Teacher, Support staffs, Community norms and

values, Financial resources, an appropriate curriculum, physical

resources,

Process= curriculum organization, teaching methods, decision

making, communication, financial allocation, facilities, effective use

of time, order and discipline, consideration of individual learning e.g.

slow learners, assignments attendance, quality of examinations,

Output= students attitudes, skills, knowledge, staff attitude

(morale), satisfaction, motivation

Feedback Are the customers buy or not buy the products?

CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN SYSTEM

1. Environmental awareness. They recognize the

interdependence between the system and the external environment.

That when you change the organization the environment is affected

and when there is a change in the environment the organization is

affected more.

2. Feedback. The open system continuously receives information

from the environment which helps it to adjust.

3. It is cycle of events where there are inputs, process, output and

feedback.

4. It works hard to avoid entropy (state of death or destruction) it

manifests a negative entropy i.e ability to maintain itself/repair

5. Equilibrium/ steady state (dynamic homeostasis) or balance

of maintenance and adaptive activities. Open system want to

maintain their form and when there is a change of environment the

organization adapt to a new situation or changes in the environment.

6. Equifinality means there are different ways towards achieving

goals

MODULE 3

EVOLVING CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION MANAGEMENT

A: Processes and Tasks

Educational management can be defined as a process

Educational management refers to the process of designing,

developing and effecting educational objectives and resources for the

achievements of organizational goals. If management is made up of

processes we can raise a question.

What are essential processes for designing, developing, effecting

educational objectives and resources for the achievement of

organizational goals?

In answering these questions we have to look at

management as a process

Henri Fayol was the first theorist to describe the process in

which administrator/managers perform their tasks, that is planning,

organizing, coordinating, controlling and commanding.

Luther Gullick examined administration in terms of the

functions performed by chief executive in the organization i.e.

planning, organizing, staffing, directing coordinating, reporting, and

budgeting.

Gregg (1957) examined management process in education and

concluded that management process in education is decision-making,

planning, organizing, influencing, coordinating and evaluating.

Koontz (2005), examined managerial processes carried out by

managers and concluded that managerial processes were Planning,

Organizing, Staffing, Leading, Controlling.

Therefore management has been conceptualized as a process which is

present in all organized activities.

Educational management can be defined as task area

Also we can define management in terms of tasks which are done by

the administrators so as to achieve the goals of the organization.

Campbell et al (1971) identified seven task areas i.e. schoolcommunity

relationship, curriculum organization, pupils’ personnel,

staff personnel, physical facilities, finance and business management,

and organization structure.

Hoy and Miskel (1996) listed seven task areas: curriculum

and instruction, negotiation, physical facilities, finance and business,

pupil personnel, evaluation and supervision, staff development and

public relations.

PUPIL/STUDENTS PERSONNEL

· Admission of pupils/students

· Orientation of new pupil’s i.e showing the school facilities,

educating the on school rules and regulations, their rights and

responsibilities.

· Maintaining student discipline, reporting pupils’ progress,

organizing classes.

· Maintaining students record

· Guidance and counseling

· Maintaining pupils attendance register

SCHOOL CURRICULUM

It includes instructional programmes and extra-curricular activities

like clubs and societies. Activities involved in implementing school

curriculum are:

· Designing and developing courses

· Determining goals or purpose of the course

· Promoting changes in the curriculum and instructions

· Forming subject associations or clubs

· Preparation/acquisition of materials for implementation of

curriculum

· Division of teaching load among the teaching staff

· Preparing the school time-table and teaching schedules

· Monitoring and supervising the teaching and learning process

· Measurement and evaluation- preparing examinations/test,

administering, marking and reporting

SUPPORT SERVICES

· Ordering and purchasing instructional materials and other

supplies such as books, food, cooking utensils

· Storing materials

· Providing recreational, health and security services

· Keeping record of receipts and distribution of materials

· Accounting for funds, equipments and other materials received

FINANCE

· Mobilization of financial resources

· Establishing policies for distribution of fund

· Budget preparation

· Administering the budget

· Acquisition of financial resource for education

· Appraising the budget

SCHOOL PHYSICAL FACILITIES

· Determining specific needs for school facilities

· Providing required facilities

· Keeping school facilities clean e.g. school buildings,

furniture

· Ensuring proper use of school facilities

· Constant maintenance of school facilities

· Construction and renovation of school buildings to meet

required standards

STAFFING AND STAFF RELATIONS

Activities done by the educational manager include:

· Recruiting and selecting staff

· Induction of new staff

· Providing in-service training

· Maintaining good staff relations

· Supervising non academic and academic staff

SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS

The managerial tasks involved are:

· Involving community members in school affairs

through the school boards

· Informing parents/community about the progress of

the school

THE ROLES OF ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL

Personnel administration is the field of study which

deals with management of people at work. It is concerned with

procurement, developing, maintaining and utilizing a labour

force so as to achieve the goal of the organization.

1. PROCUREMENT i.e. hiring the required number of suitable

persons to fill the various positions in the organizations. It

involves: manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement

of personnel.

i) Manpower planning

These are activities that personnel administrator performs so as

to determine the current and future human resource needs.

The projection of the needed staff depends on:

_ The demographic structure of the population

_ The number of children who expect to start schooling or

move from one level to another

_ Trends in previous demands of school opportunities

_ Programmes expected to be introduced

_ Teacher-pupils/students ratio to be achieved

ii) Recruitment

Is the process of locating and attracting qualified applicants

for jobs open in the organization. It involves identification

and description of the positions to be filled, advertising and

encouraging persons to apply and collecting information on

applicants. There are two sources of recruitment:

a) Internal source- promotion i.e. shifting employee to a

higher level. Transfer- shifting employee from one section

or branch to another of the same rank. It involves no

significant change in the pay, status and responsibility of

the employees

b)External source- advertisement in newspapers,

iii) Selection

Refers to the process of screening job applicants to hire the best

candidate. Selection procedures include:

a) Background information (education level, working

experience etc,

b) Interviews

c) Paper and pencil tests which measure the ability to do

the job.

d) Physical ability test to measure physical strengths and

stamina of applicants,

e) Performance tests measure the ability of applicant to perform

a task e.g. a secretary is given a typing task.

e) Reference test i.e. applicants are required to provide

references from formers employers or other knowledgeable

persons (college instructors, advisors) who knows the applicants

abilities, skills and other personal characteristics.

iv) Placement

Is the process of matching the candidates with the job in the

organization. That is every selected candidate is assigned a job

most suitable to him. The aim of placement is to increase

efficiency of work and employee satisfaction. Correct placement

helps to reduce labour turnover and absenteeism.

v) Training, appointment and orientation

Training helps the new members to acquire knowledge, skills

they need so as to be effective performer of their current job.

Two types of training classroom instruction and on-the-job

training.

If the selected have the required qualification they will be

appointed and provided with orientation to the work

environment, to the equipments, to the fellow workers and to the

policies guiding their appointment and performance.

Personnel development, promotion and termination

2. Development

Includes improving the knowledge and skills of personnel for

efficient performance of their jobs. This includes in-service

training, work shop and seminars. Two types of development:

varied work experience and formal education.

i) Performance Appraisal

Is the evaluation of employee’s job performance and

contribution to the organization. The types of performance

appraisal:

Trait appraisal, that is assessment of employees’ personal

characteristics like skills, abilities or personality;

Behavioral appraisal that is assessment of how workers

perform their jobs, the actual action and behavior that workers

exhibit/show on the job.

Results appraisal that is assessment of the actual

results/outcome of work behaviors.

Objective and subjective appraisal

Objective appraisal is based on number e.g. number of

students passed or failed, number of times late, numbers of

topics taught etc.

Subjective appraisal is based on manager’s perception of

traits, behaviors’ or results. Since it is based on managers

perception there is a chance of being inaccurate.

Who appraise performance?

Individual worker (self), Peers, Customers/clients, Supervisors,

subordinates.

ii) Promotion

Promotion should base on both performance and professional

development.

3. Compensation

Involves determination of equitable remuneration (payment) of

personnel for their contribution to the objectives of the

organization through job evaluation, wage and salary

administration, bonus. Compensation can be paid in monetary or

non monetary units

Termination

To be fair both professional skills development and performance

should be given equal weight when making decision for

promotion and termination. Personnel administrator should

assist people who retire.

4. Integration

Implies reconciling (merging) the interests of personnel with the

organization objectives through collective bargaining, grievance

procedures, discipline, suggestion scheme so as to create mutual

understanding and cooperation. (Collective bargaining is

the negotiation between labour unions and managers so as to

resolve conflicts and disputes about important issues such as

working hours, wages working conditions and job security).

5. Welfare, which is protecting the physical and mental health

of employees. Various benefits and services are provided for the

health, safety, and welfare of personnel. Good working

conditions, cafeteria, rest rooms, education of children,

recreational facilities, insurance, house loans are examples of

welfare measures.

6. Keeping personnel records regarding the attendance,

seniority, performance of personnel

MODULE 4

ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES IN EDUCATIONAL

SYSTEMS

PLANNING

Is a course of action to be taken in the future. It identifies the

objective to be achieved in future and steps necessary to achieve

them. Henry Fayol defined a plan as the study of the future

and the arrangement of the plan of action.

Characteristics of planning

1. Planning is goal oriented, that is it seeks to achieve certain

objectives of the organization

2. Planning is looking ahead that is it is done for the future

3. Planning is an intellectual process. It is not mere guess work

for it involves rational thinking or critical thinking

4. Planning involves choices. That is a process of choosing

among alternatives.

5. It is designed for efficiency. Sound planning leads to

accomplishment of desired objectives at minimum cost.

6. It is pervasive/Omnipresent. Planning is the function of every

manager irrespective of his position and level in the

organization.

7. It is a continuous process/ functions. Planning is a neverending

function due to the ever changing environment of

business.

RATIONALE FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

1. Scarcity and uneven distribution of resources. Therefore

planning is needed so as to select the most important activity in

which the available resource could be directed into and to

equitably distribute it.

2. Planning facilitate management by objective because it guide

the action to be followed for achievement of goal. It eliminates

aimless activity.

3. It brings order in place of chaos. Planning makes systematic,

integrated and orderly efforts possible and avoids random

activity, duplication of work and overlapping efforts.

4. Planning minimizes uncertainty and risk as it enable

educational organizations to assess the future and get prepared

for meeting future challenges.

5. Increases efficiency of educational management and

administration. It helps eliminate all wastes and achieve

optimum utilization of available resources because through

planning goals are set, problems are identified, solutions are

developed and decision on strategies for the implementations

and means of accountability are made.

6. It facilitates control i.e. provides the standards against which

the actual performance can be measured and evaluated

7. Attraction of both local and foreign investors into the

educational sector. Many investors put their money in areas

where policies and goals are clear or where the educational plan

aims at promoting efficiency, transparency, accountability and

responsibility.

PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Political barrier

Educational planners in developing countries are rarely given

opportunity to offer expert input before politicians make overly

pronouncements. For example in 1970s Tanzania and Nigeria

made decisions to attain Universal Primary Education (UPE) in

less than five years. However they failed to translate the policies

into action. As a result the process has taken over 30 years

without achieving the target.

External vs. internal experts

Many developing countries underutilized their local experts in

favor of foreign experts because they supplied funds. The

problem is most of the foreign experts lacked expertise in

education planning and when the external experts are withdrawn

local experts lack capacity to implement and sustain externally

supported plans and programmes.

Lack of leadership

In many developing countries appointment of strategic position

in the ministry of education are not based on transparency

criteria of merit as a result the planning sections are staffed by

people who never care the significance of expertise in preparing

sound educational plans.

Tenure is not secure for example in Tanzania between 1997 and

2001 there were four changes of permanent secretaries and five

changes of Directors of Planning Section. This affects official

commitment to the plans or programmes because the tenure is

insecure and this tempts many officials to promote personal

interests over the public interests because of uncertainty of their

future.

Lack of information and Data

Education planning in many developing countries lack reliable

demographic, economic and social indicators data. Reasons for

this state of affairs:

i) Lack of sufficient fund to conduct comprehensive surveys

upon which we can build data banks that can be relied upon

planning. Many developing countries do not have accurate data

about number of teachers employed, or on payroll funds,

number of children enrolled, dropouts, and deaths.

ii) Lack of adequate means of communication and transport

affects the collection and updating of data due to inaccessibility

of some areas by car or by telephones.

Over-centralization of the education system

Over-centralization of the education system hinders effective

implementation of plans. In bigger countries like Tanzania,

Nigeria with good number of schools.

The introduction of multi-party system

iv) The introduction of multi-party system has influenced the

promotion of democracy but also has affected educational

planning and development in the third world countries. Some of

the political parties have been influencing their members from

participating in community activities by saying that the

government can provide those needs if only resources are

located rationally.

ORGANIZING

To organize is to divide tasks into manageable units and

defining formal relationship among persons (structures) so that

they work as one body for attainment of common objective. It is

the process of assigning activities to individuals and defining

authority and responsibility.

Is to create a structure of working relationship that allows

organizational members to interact and cooperate so as to

achieve the organizational goals.

Steps that are involved in organizing

1. Determining activities to be performed so as to achieve

the goal. The activities to be done will depend on the nature of

the organization. In educational organization the activities may

include teaching, learning, research, and consultancy

2. Grouping activities into manageable units so that they can

be assigned to individuals. In educational organizational

related activities are grouped into the same departments.

While grouping activities the following things should be taken

into consideration:

i) Specialization so that work is done efficiently

ii) Grouping activity should facilitate coordination among

departments

iii) It reduces administrative expenditure

iv) It facilitates control over the performance of individuals

v) Adequate attention to be paid to every activity

vi) The nature of activity should be considered

vii) The number, needs, preferences and limitation of employee

should be taken into account.

3. Assigning duties to different individuals. Each person

should be given the job best suited to him/her.

4. Delegation of authority. Each person should be given the

authority to perform the assigned task.

5. Coordination of activities. The activities and efforts of

individuals should be coordinated and the relationship between

different positions should be defined and each individual should

understand a person whom he/she is supposed to receive or give

order.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZING

Organization is the framework through which managers operate.

Sound organization ensures:

i) Efficient administration. Enable the management to delegate

responsibility to lower levels for routine functions. It avoids

confusion, delays and duplication of work and overlapping of

efforts.

ii) Growth and diversification. It helps the organization to

keep various activities under control. It increases the capacity of

the organization to undertake more activities without dislocation

iii) Optimum use of human resources. Sound management

ensures that every employee is placed on the job for which

he/she is best suited. Such a matching of jobs and individuals

helps in better use of human talents.

iv) Coordination and communication. Organization creates

clear cut relationship among positions and helps to ensures

mutual cooperation among individuals. It also specifies channels

of communication among different members of the organization.

v) Training and development. It encourages initiatives and

creative thinking on the part on the part of employees. It

facilitates development of managerial talents at lower levels

through adequate delegation of authority.

COORDINATION

It is the orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of

action in the pursuit of common goals. It involves unifying,

integrating and harmonizing the activities of different

departments and individuals for the achievements of common

goals.

Techniques of coordination

The following techniques can be used for achieving coordination

i) Goal should be clearly defined so that every employee

understands the overall objectives and the contribution of his job

to these objectives.

ii) Proper policies and programmes help to create uniformity

of action which facilitates coordination.

iii) Effective communication. Good communication is key to

coordination Formal communication channels should be clear

and informal contacts should be encouraged.

iv) Effective leadership and supervision helps to unite the

actions by guiding the efforts of individuals.

v) Clear line of authority (order giver and order receiver)

facilitates mutual cooperation which is essential for effective

coordination.

COMMUNICATION

What is communication?

Is the sharing of communication between two or more

individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.

Meaningful understanding is possible in a situation where the

people you communicate understand the language and that the

receiver is mentally and psychological able to receive that

information.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The process of communication consists of the following steps

i) The sender is a person who conveys the message. He may be

a speaker, writer or an actor. He formulates the message which

he wants to convey.

ii) The message is the information /ideas which the sender

wants to communicate.

iii) Encode is the process through which the sender translates

the message into symbols, words or other forms to make the

receiver understand the message.

iv) Channel/medium. The encoded message is transmitted

through channel which is called communication media. The

media could be phone call, letter, memo, or face to face

communication.

v) The receiver is a person who receives the message e.g. the

listener, reader, or observer.

vi) Decode is the process through which the receiver interprets

so as to draw meaning from it.

vii) The feedback is the response of the message from the

receiver to the sender. The receiver decides what message to

send to the original sender who becomes a receiver.

COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION

Organizational communication refers to communication which

takes place among groups of people within the organization.

THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are two types of communication

i) Formal communication

ii) Informal communication

FORMAL COMMUNICATION

Refers to the transmission of official messages through the chain

of command. The path of formal channel is determined by the

management and it is associated with the status, or position

between the communicator and the receiver. In most cases

formal communication is in writing such as letters, memos,

which involves transmission of order, instructions and decisions.

Formal communication flow in three directions:

i) Downward

ii) Upward communication

iii) Horizontal communication

Downward communication means transmission of messages

from higher authority to lower level in the form of order and

instruction.

Upward communication refers to transmission of message

from lower level to the higher level in the form of suggestions,

grievances, appeals, reports etc.

Horizontal communication refers to exchange of information

among persons of the same status or levels e.g. communication

between faculty deans or heads of department in educational

sector.

Advantages of formal communication

Formal communication has the following advantages:

i) Maintains authority and status of the senior staff

ii) It helps to fix responsibility to subordinates

iii) It keeps the management informed about attitudes and

performance of workers

iv) It helps in the coordination of different activities.

Disadvantages

i) It tends to be slow in the flow of information

ii) It is rigid and rule bound

iii) It leads to overload of work for higher authority

iv) It does not provide enough opportunities to workers to

express their opinion freely.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Informal communication refers to the communication among

people through informal channels. It is built around

interpersonal relations such as employees who share common

hobbies, hometowns, lunch breaks, family ties. It tends to be

spontaneous, implicit and flexible where as formal

communication is explicit, rigid and direct.

Advantages

i) It operates very fast. Therefore it is useful when information

is to be sent quickly

ii) It is flexible and dynamic and therefore reacts quickly to

changing circumstances

iii) It provides opportunity to workers for self expression i.e

during the period of insecurity or uncertainty people can express

their fears more freely through informal channels (grapevines).

iv) it helps to know what is happening in the organization.

Workers resort to informal communication when there are

barriers in the formal communication

v) it helps to fill gap in the formal communication system.

Managers use grapevines when they find it difficult to collect

information from workers.

Disadvantages

i) it is disorderly and unpredictable

ii) it often carries inaccurate information half-truths, distorted

information/facts and even rumours. Therefore, it is highly

unreliable

iii) It is not possible to pinpoint its origin and fix responsibility

for mis-communication

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Refers to the pattern of interpersonal communication among

members of the organization. There are five common

communication networks

i). Chain network communication flow either down wards or

upwards in a defined chain of command. For example

information moves from the principal to the deputy principal to

the heads of departments to the course coordinator to the course

instructor.

ii) Wheel network: information flow from the subordinates to

the centrally placed supervisor or from the spatially arranged

subordinates. There is no interaction between subordinates e.g

communication between permanent secretary and REO or DEO

and heads of schools

iii) Y networks: information flow from two spatially arranged

subordinates to the superior who in turn reports to his

supervisor. E.g information flow from heads of school to DEO

who in turn reports to REO.

Information flow from subordinate who have a chain of

communication linkage to the superior and the supervisor

reports to two supervisors who occupy similar level. This is the

case where the principal reports to two deputy vice chancellors.

iv) Cycle network: communication occurs between adjoining

members only. No interaction between members and others

outside the network. All members are at the same hierarchical

level. So horizontal communication is dominant. Eg interaction

between heads of school.

v) All channel. Members are free to communicate freely one

another without any restriction. Commutation is initiated from

one point to another since there is no leader and all members are

equal.

NB

Chain, wheel and Y represents the centralized networks since

subordinates’ reports to the supervisors

The cycle and all-channel represent the decentralized networks

where there is no formal leader.

Chain, wheel and Y is useful when the solution to the problems

is to be achieved fast so long as the tasks are relatively simple.

IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

i) It is used to organize employees to fulfill organizational

objectives eg when the manager assigns duties to subordinates.

ii) Effective communication helps to promote efficiency of

educational organization e.g. when manager issues order,

instructions and regulations, plans, programmes, job changes.

Again employees bring their suggestions, difficulties, and

grievances to the notice of the management.

iii) It is used in relating educational organization with

external environment such as trade unions, the government and

the society.

iv) It is used to upraise members of educational organization.

v) Forms the basis of decision making. The quality of

managerial decision depends on the amount of information

available in the organization

vi) It is used to convince /attract the customers to purchase

the products or services.

vii) It is used by managers to persuade other members of the

organization to accept their decisions, plans etc.

viii) Good communication is necessary for managers to learn

about new technology, implement them, and train workers

on how to use them.

Students to find out barriers to effective communication

through private study.

DECISION MAKING

It is a choice among the available alternatives; OR it is a mental

process resulting in the selection of course of action among

several alternatives. It is a part of the functions of management

like planning, organizing and controlling.

It occurs when manager wants to improve performance of the

organization and when he responds threats hence analyses

options to determine specific ways of achieving organizational

goals.

TYPES OF DECISION MAKING PROCESS

i) Programmed decision making

ii) Non programmed decision making

Programmed decisions are decision that has been made so

many times in the past to regulate all routine organizational

activities. Rules or guidelines have been developed to be applied

when certain situations occurs. E.g decision to hire teachers, to

punish students who misbehave, buying stationary etc.

Non programmed decision making are decisions made in

response to unusual or unexpected events. It occurs when there

are no ready made decisions rules that managers can apply to a

situation. E.g. when dealing with unexpected events such as fire,

earthquakes. The managers rely on intuition in making decision

e.g. feeling, belief,

MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

1. Rational / the classical model of decision making

Is a model which specifies how manager will make logical

decision that will optimize the interests of organization. It

assumes that:

i) Decision makers possess all information about alternative

course of action and the possible consequences of different

alternatives.

ii) The decision makers possess mental ability to process

information i.e. ranking alternatives from the least preferred to

most preferred according to personal preferences

iii) The decision maker is capable of selecting alternative (best

alternative) that leads to desired future consequences of the

organization.

2. Non rational / the administrative model of decision

making

The model explains why decision making is always uncertain

and risky process. The model was developed by James March

and Hebert Simon in 1950s. March and Simon stated that a

manager is not truly logical/rational because their rationality is

affected by various restrictions including:

i) Bounded rationality i.e. cognitive limitations that constrain

one’s ability to interpret process and act on information.

Human intelligence constrains the ability of decision makers to

determine optimum decisions.

ii) Time and money constraints. Decision makers may not

have enough time and money to search for relevant information

about alternative solutions and evaluate the consequences of

those solutions. This may lead to incomplete,

imperfect/ambiguous and fragmented information about the

alternative solutions.

iii) Information overload. Occurs when the manager have too

much information to process.

iv) Different priorities. The manager may conceive some

information to be more important and others are ignored.

v) Conflicting goals a decision maker might have conflicting

goals which can affect his decision

vi) Complexity of the problem. This occur when the problem

is so complex that go beyond the understanding of the

manager

Because of the above constraints managers do not make

exhaustive search for the best alternatives instead they select the

first alternative that meets decision maker’s current level of

aspiration/goal. This is called satisficing

Another non rational decision making model is the incremental

model in which managers take small short term steps to alleviate

a problem rather than steps that will accomplish a long-term

solution. However over time a series of short term steps may

move towards a long term solution.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

1. Outline the goal for making decision. Normally the changes

in the organizational environment results in new kind of new

opportunities and threats.

2. Generate alternatives solutions so as to respond to

opportunities and threats

3. Assess the alternatives by listing advantages and

disadvantages of each alternative. While you list them you can

eliminate the solutions that have more cons than pros, making

your decision easier. Some of the criteria for evaluating the

disadvantages and advantages of alternatives include:

i) Legality of alternative such that it does not violet both

domestic and international law;

ii) Ethicalness i.e alternative selected should not harm any stake

holder;

iii) Economic feasibility alternative chosen should be less

costful;

iv) Practicality i.e ability of the organization to implement the

alternative given the resources available and it should not

harm other projects.

4. Choose among alternative(s)

After careful evaluation of alternatives using various criterions

the next step is to rank the alternative from the best to the least

and then the alternative which has more advantages than

disadvantages is chosen.

5. Implement the chosen alternative: once the best alternative

has been chosen it is implemented while by manager delegating

authority to the lower levels for effective implementation.

6. Learn from, and reflect on the decision making. This step

allows the decision makers to see if he/she did right or wrong

when coming up with the decision and implementing it. This

can be achieved through:

i) Comparing the actual results from the expected results as a

result of the decision made

ii) Finding out why the expected results were not met

iii) Developing guidelines that will help in the future decision

making process.

GROUP DECISION MAKING

Refers to decisions made by a group/team of managers in order

to solve problems.

Advantages of Group Decision Making

i) Allow drawing a combined skills, competence and

accumulated knowledge of group members hence improve

ability to generate feasible alternatives and make good decision

ii) Allows managers to process more information and correct

one another’s errors and come up with good decision.

iii) Increase commitment among decision makers in the

successful implementation of decision made.

iv) Better understanding of decision rationale. Team

members understand the reason behind the decision and its

advantages and disadvantages.

v) improves the quality of decision because it is made up by

people with different perspectives

vi) Intellectual stimulation. A group of people can brainstorm

and bring greater intellectual stimulation and creativity to

decision making process than is usually possible with one

person acting alone

Disadvantages Associated With Group Decision Making

i) It is time consuming because it may take longer time to agree

on the decision because of divergent interests and preferences

among decision makers.

ii) it can be undermined by biases or groupthink. Groupthink

is a pattern of faulty and biased decision making that occurs in

groups whose members strive for agreement among themselves

at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to a

decision.

iii) Satisficing. This can occur because groups have limited

time, lack the right kind of information or are unable to handle

large amount of information

iv) Goal displacement. This occurs when members compete to

win an argument as a result of rivals the primary goal may be

subsumed by a secondary goal.

MODULE 5

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

LEADERSHIP

Is the ability to influence/persuade employees to voluntarily

pursue organizational goals. Leadership style refers the ways the

leader interacts with his employees, how he makes decisions,

how he treats employees and how he reacts to events or

issues in the organization. It also refers to particular

behavior applied by a leader to motivate his/her

subordinates to achieve the objectives of the organization.

There are three common types of leadership styles

i) Authoritative or autocratic style

ii) Participative or democratic style

iii) Laissez-Faire or Free reign style.

AUTHORITATIVE OR AUTOCRATIC STYLE

In this style all decisions are made by the leader and he is never

questioned. The leader does not consult the staff nor allow them

to give their opinions. He relies on threats and punishment to

make staff do their work. There is a structured set of reward and

punishment. Moreover the leader is very conscious of his

positions and has little trust and faith in employees, he also

believes pay as the only reward that will motivate employee.

However employees assume no responsibility as they only do

what they are told. Workers perform well in the presence of

leader and perform poorly when the leader is absent

ADVANTAGES

1) It works positively during emergency and in stressful

situations

ii) it is useful when implementing group project. Authoritative

leader is needed to make decision for a group.

iii) it is useful where members are not critical thinkers and not

innovative, hence they depend on managers for making

decisions.

iv) Permits quick decision making.

LIMITATIONS

i) It is not liked by members who are innovative, critical thinkers

and those who want transformations.

ii) Does not help the very future leaders of the organization

because creativity and innovatively of employees is discouraged.

In the school autocratic leader will show close supervision of

employees and the pattern of close supervision will be indicated

by the presence of strict rules and regulation, rigid relationship

between teachers and students, unilateral and downward flow of

information

DEMOCRATIC/PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP STYLE

Decision making is shared between the leader and the

subordinates. Criticism and praise are given objectively. A

leader allows subordinates to provide their opinions when

making decision. A feeling of responsibility develops among

employees.

i) it encourage staff to participate in decision making.

ii) it keeps the staff informed about the performance of their

work.

iii) Encourage staff to feel good about their involvement

iv) There is a two ways flow of information

ADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPATIVE STYLE

i) Members may feel more committed to group goal and less

resistant to managerial actions.

ii) Individual abilities can be developed through participation

iii) Increase motivation of the group members. The knowledge

and experience of group members can be used in decision

making

DISADVANTAGES

i) Individuals may dominate the decision making process.

ii) The approach consumes a lot of time because of the two ways

communication

iii) Compromise may result to a decision which is not the most

effective.

iv) The leader may be viewed as incapable in handling job

responsibility.

LAISSEZ FAIRE/ FREE REIGN LEADERSHIP STYLE

It is also known as hand-off or delegative style. The manager

provides little or direction. The manager gives staff more

freedom to determine goals, make decisions and resolve

problems on their own. However the leader is responsible for

what happens due to the decisions. A leader has no confidence

in his leadership ability hence he does not set goal for the group.

On part of employees decision is made by anybody willing to do

it as a result productivity is low. Employees have little interests

in their work. Workers morale and team work generally is low

ADVANTAGES

i) It is useful when the leaders has to do something else more

important than the task

ii) It is effective in a situation where group members are highly

qualified in an area of expertise

DISADVANTAGES

i) It leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation

ii) It can result into low productivity, cohesiveness and

satisfaction if the leader withdraws from their subordinates.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE LEADERSHIP STYLE

(i) Time available

(ii) Relationship between the leader and subordinates whether it

is based on trust or mistrust

(iii) Level of knowledge of the leader and the employees’ i.e

who has the knowledge about the task.

(iv) Internal conflict between the leadership and the subordinates

(v) Stress level

(vi) Type of task. Whether it is structured, unstructured,

complex or simple

POWER

Power is ability of the leader to influence other so that they

respond to order. It is the ability to control action of others.

Power is key to leadership. The key component of effective

leadership is in the power the leader has to affect people’s

behavior and get them to act in a certain way.

Sources of power/types of power

There are five sources of power

I) Legitimate power is authority the manager has by virtue of

his/her position in the organizational hierarchy. All managers

have legitimate power over their employees derived from their

position. The followers accept the directives from their leaders

without resistance. This is because administrator has been

appointed by an organization to make decisions on certain

issues.

ii) Reward power is the ability of manager to give or withhold

tangible rewards (promotion, choice of job assignment, verbal

praise, respect). This depends on the extent to which a person

control rewards that are valued by subordinates. In the

organization such rewards may include salaries, promotions,

work assignment, bonus, as well as material rewards. In the

organization managers can use reward to make people do what

they want them to do. The power of the manager is reduced

when he/she has less control of valuable rewards.

iii) Coercive power. It exists when someone has the ability to

punish others. Punishment can range from verbal

reprimand/warning to reduction in pay or working hours,

suspension, and actual dismissal. When coercive power is often

used it may result to resentment and hostility. In most cases riot

are results of the use of coercive power. In education we are

advised not to depend on this type of power. Use it as a last

resort.

iv) Expert power is power which results from one’s specialized

information or expertise. E.g having computer or medical

knowledge, secretary. It is not exclusive to leaders; shop floor

workers may have it. In education system, people with expert

power are more respected than those who use coercive power.

v) Referent power It is a result of respect. Is power based on

personal characteristic of a leadership or personal attraction. It is

sometimes associated with charismatic behaviors. The more one

is respected by a group, the more referent power she/he

exercises over that group.

Conclusion: While legitimate, reward and coercive power are

position power, expert and referent power are personal power.

AUTHORITY

Sometimes power and authority is used interchangeably but they

differ. Power is general and authority is part of power. It is

power associated with human relationship which enable those

higher up in the hierarchy to command those lower in the

hierarchy and which compels those lower in the hierarchy to

obey the command of those higher up. According to Max Weber

there are three sources /types of authority

i) Traditional authority

ii) Legal rational authority

iii) Charismatic authority

Traditional authority

It is the hierarchical structure of power derived from long

established customs and traditions and it passes from one

generation to another. People believe that somebody is our

leader or has the right to give command. For example the precolonial

authority of traditional African leaders, the right of

hereditary monarchies to rule, the right of family leader to rule

others.

Legal Rational Authority

It is power which is based on enacted laws hence the obedience

is towards the law which specifies what to comply on. The

power of legal rational authority is mentioned in the

constitution. The government officials are best example of legal

rational authority which is prevalent all over the world.

Hence legal rational authority is power system exercised

through legitimate/lawful channels of giving orders, channels of

setting decisions, reviewing decisions, allocating resource and

channel of establishing standards to guide general behavior of

members in the organization.

Charismatic Authority

Is power legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional/special

personal qualities or demonstrating of extraordinary insight

which inspire loyalty and obedience from the followers. It rests

entirely on the leader such that the absence of that leader for any

reason can lead to authority power dissolving. Examples of

charismatic leaders Jesus Christ, Mohammad S.A W., political

leaders like Fidel Castro of Cuba, Mao Tse Tung once a

president of China.

INFLUENCE

Refer to the ability to get others follow your wishes. There are

various tactics of influencing others

i) Pressure tactic, which is using threats, or

intimidation/coercion to gain compliance/conformity/agreement.

ii) Coalition tactic, getting others to support your effort to

persuade someone. E.g. everyone in the department agree on

this.

iii) Rational persuasion tactic, trying to convince someone by

using reason or facts.

iv) Consultation: Getting others to participate in decision or

change.

E.g. your ideas/opinions/suggestions are very important in

improving performance of college students.

v) Ingratiating tactic: E.g. acting humble or friendly or making

someone feel important before making a request.

vi) Personal appeals. Referring to friendship when making a

request. E.g. we have known each other long time and I ‘m sure

I can count on you.

vii) Exchange tactics: reminding someone of the past favor or

offerings to trade/get favors. I assisted you last time; can you

assist me now?

viii) Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on ones authority or

organizational rules or policies or implied support from superior.

E.g. this order comes from the above or this order has been

issued by the head of school.

SKILLS IN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT.

Leadership skills are important for continual growth and success

of the organization. The good leader must possess relevant skills

which will enable the organization to achieve its goal/s.

Planning Skills

It is one of the key functions of management. It deals with

setting and determining objectives, methods, resources and the

date to accomplish the task.

Problem solving and Decision Making Skills

Some of the most important role of educational leader is to solve

problems and make decisions. The problem is anything that

irritates an individual or the organization and affects its

performance. In solving the problem a leader has to follow

certain procedures such as;

Defining the problems. In defining the problem the

leader/manager may ask the following questions why it is a

problem. Why is it happening? How and when.

Identify the potential causes of the problem

Identify the alternative solution to the problem

Plan the implementation strategies of the solution

Monitoring the implementation of the solution

Evaluate if the selected solution was successful or not.

Motivating Skills

Educational leader must possess skills for motivating employees

so that they feel important in the organization. This can be

realized by keeping employees well informed about what is

going on and what is expected to be done, learning about what

people want from their job, recognizing employees since

recognition is more important than salary. Having regular

meeting with employees so as to exchange ideas

Delegation Skill

Is the process through which a leader or manager gives

responsibility and authority to subordinates to complete a task

and letting subordinate to figure out how the task can be

accomplished. It is one of the requisite of good leadership and it

supports trust and confidence in those supervised and enable

manager to be free to do more important tasks.

Tips for successful delegation

Understand the aims of delegation

Decide specifically what you can delegate

Delegate the task to the right person

State clearly your preferred results

Assign the task and not the methods of accomplishing a task

Make a follow up (ask subordinate to write a progressive

report).

Communication Skills

Communication is very important in any type of organization.

A leader or manager must have regular communication with

subordinates. There should be weekly, monthly meetings so as

to exchange ideas and to understand the progress of the

organizations.

Effective communication is an important management skill for

several reasons

i) It enables manager to direct the people who work for them

ii) It enables the manager to motivate people. Good leader use

their ability to get other people excited about their jobs

iii) Enable manager to convince customers to purchase a product

or services. Without good communication skill a leader or

manager will find it difficult to attract customers.

iv) Enable manager to absorb ideas of others. Good leader must

be able understand other peoples view points as he interacts with

customers, suppliers, co-workers.

v) Enable manager to persuade other people. Managers must

communicate effectively to persuade workers accept his/her

ideas

While communicating a good leader must understand his/her

audience i.e. their knowledge about the issue /information you

want to communicate, ability to absorb information, friendliness

or hostile audience, what do you want them to know. Leader

must develop good listening skills so as to absorb information

from the audience, recognize the problems of the audience and

understand other people’s viewpoints. Moreover the leader must

understand the importance of feedback

Meeting Management Skills

A good leader must possess skill in handling meeting and must

understand that the process used in meeting vary with the type

of meeting e.g. planning, problem-solving or staff meeting.

Basic skills for meeting management include:

Identifying participants, developing agenda with the key

participants, opening the meeting, establish ground rules for

meeting (e.g. full participation of members, get focused etc),

time management i.e. start meeting in time and end in time and

evaluate the meeting (get feedback from attend on how the

meeting was conducted so as to improve future meeting.

Disciplining

Is the act of dealing with employee/people when they fail to do

their job or they behave abnormally.

Strategies

Take the individual in private

Discuss the situation right after the incidence

Don’t embarrass the individual

Be friendly to individual. Listen the other side of the story

Weigh the fact before you constructively discipline.

Do not nag or harp a person over and over again. It will cause

irritation.

Don’t argue i.e to talk angrily to a person

ORGANIZING SKILLS

To organize is to divide tasks into manageable units and

defining formal relationship among persons (structures) so that

they work as one body for attainment of common objective. It is

the process of assigning activities to individuals and defining

authority and responsibility.

Is to create a structure of working relationship that allows

organizational members to interact and cooperate so as to

achieve the organizational goals.

Steps that are involved in organizing

1. Determining activities to be performed so as to achieve

the goal. The activities to be done will depend on the nature of

the organization. In educational organization the activities may

include teaching, learning, research, and consultancy

2. Grouping activities into manageable units so that they can

be assigned to individuals. In educational organizational

related activities are grouped into the same departments.

While grouping activities the following things should be taken

into consideration:

i) Specialization so that work is done efficiently

ii) Grouping activity should facilitate coordination among

departments

iii) It reduces administrative expenditure

iv) it facilitates control over the performance of individuals

v) Adequate attention to be paid to every activity

vi) the nature of activity should be considered

vii) The number, needs, preferences and limitation of employee

should be taken into account.

3. Assigning duties to different individuals. Each person

should be given the job best suited to him/her.

4. Delegation of authority. Each person should be given the

authority to perform the assigned task.

5. Coordination of activities. The activities and efforts of

individuals should be coordinated and the relationship between

different positions should be defined and each individual should

understand a person whom he/she is supposed to receive or give

order.

COORDINATION

It is the orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of

action in the pursuit of common goals. It involves unifying,

integrating and harmonizing the activities of different

departments and individuals for the achievements of common

goals.

Techniques of coordination

The following techniques can be used for achieving coordination

i) Goal should be clearly defined so that every employee

understands the overall objectives and the contribution of his job

to these objectives.

ii) Proper policies and programmes help to create uniformity

of action which facilitates coordination.

iii) Effective communication. Good communication is key to

coordination Formal communication channels should be clear

and informal contacts should be encouraged.

iv) Effective leadership and supervision helps to unite the

actions by guiding the efforts of individuals.

v) Clear line of authority (order giver and order receiver)

facilitates mutual cooperation which is essential for effective

coordination.

ETHICAL ASPECTS IN EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP.

ETHICS

Is derived from Greek word ethos which means a person’s

orientation towards life. It is a system of right or wrong. Ethics

assists an individual to decide when an act is moral or immoral.

Sources of ethics include religious beliefs, national and ethnic

beliefs, community standards, family practices, educational

experience. So as to help managers to respond to different

situation in educational organization code of ethics have been

developed. Code of ethics is a document that outlines the

principles of conduct to be used in making decisions within an

organization. Some of the contents of the code of ethics include

i. behaving honestly: an effective leader holds the truth as a

central value and fundamental of all other values. And a honesty

employee is the one who never steal from employer, never

falsify documents and never lie about reporting and hours

worked.

ii) People oriented /serve others. It is based on the principle of

doing for others as you would have them do it for you. An

ethical leader is aware of how their decisions impact others and

use their social power to serve the majority.

iii) Motivating the followers i.e. putting the needs and interests

of the group ahead of their own. It involves engaging followers

in various activities in the organization.

iv) Excellence in all work performed

v) Integrity i.e. having the courage to act and live by ones belief.

Or integration of outward action with inner belief.

vi) Persistence or being determined, i.e. if you fail into the first

time try again later.

vii) Commitment. I.e. the state of being dedicated to the work,

or spending whatever time and energy is necessary to

accomplish the task at hand.

viii) Autonomy i.e the right to make his/her own decision

ix) Confidentiality. The duty to respect privacy information of

others.

x) justice. The duty to treat all employees fairly i.e. distributing

the risks and benefit equally.

xi) tolerance /understanding. The duty to accept and understand

others view points if reasons dictate

others

Adherence to the law

Ensuring health and safety in the work place

Financial reporting

Security of employment

Protection of environment